O King, hear now the noble duties and virtues prescribed for each class of society and the orders of life. A Brahmin, foremost among men, should always act for the welfare of all beings, never causing harm to anyone. Friendship with all creatures is regarded as his highest wealth. He should maintain equal regard for stones, gems, and the possessions of others, showing neither attachment nor covetousness. Approaching his wife only during the proper season is praised for him. A Kshatriya, too, may give gifts to Brahmins as he wishes, perform sacrifices, and study the sacred texts. His principal means of livelihood is living by the sword and protecting the earth, but the highest among these is the guardianship of the land. By protecting the earth, kings fulfill their duty, partaking in the merit of sacrifices and other rites. By punishing the wicked and protecting the virtuous, the king attains the desired worlds and establishes the order of the castes. For the Vaishya, animal husbandry, trade, and agriculture are the means of livelihood, granted by Brahma, the grandfather of the world. Study, sacrifice, giving, righteousness, and the performance of daily and occasional duties are also praised for him. His work is associated with the twice-born, supporting them through wealth from trade or earnings from crafts. The Shudra’s virtues are humility, cleanliness, service, loyalty to the master, sacrifice without mantras, non-stealing, association with the virtuous, and protection of Brahmins. A Shudra may give gifts and worship with domestic sacrifices; all rites such as ancestral offerings may be performed by him. For the support of servants and others, all may accept possessions, and approaching one’s own wife during the proper season is permitted. Compassion toward all beings, forbearance, absence of arrogance, truthfulness, purity, lack of anxiety, auspiciousness, and speaking kindly are virtues for all. Friendliness, non-covetousness, non-miserliness, and absence of envy are praised for all common classes, O lord of men. These are the general characteristics for all the orders of life; now listen to the specific virtues and duties of each class. The duty of a Kshatriya is prescribed for the twice-born, and the duty of a Vaishya likewise in adversity; but the duty of a Shudra is not for these two. If capable, both may abandon such duties even in distress, O king; only in adversity should they perform them, but they should not mix the duties of the classes. Thus, O king, the duties of the classes have been described. Now listen as the duties of the orders of life are properly declared. Aurva spoke: A boy who has undergone initiation and is devoted to reciting the Veda should reside with his teacher, intent as a student. There, he should practice purity, good conduct, and vows, serving his teacher and learning the Veda with a determined mind. At both twilights, he should worship the sun and fire with concentration, and salute his teacher. When the teacher stands, he should stand; when the teacher goes, he should follow; when the teacher is seated, he should sit below, never acting contrary to the teacher. He should recite the Veda only as instructed by the teacher, with his mind undistracted, and eat alms-food only with the teacher’s permission. He should bathe after the teacher has bathed, and bring water, firewood, and other necessities for the teacher at proper times. Having learned and mastered the Veda, and received permission, he should enter household life, having fulfilled the teacher’s due. Obtaining a wife according to prescribed rites, and wealth by his own work, he should perform all the duties of a householder to the best of his ability. He should honor the ancestors with offerings, the gods and guests with sacrifices, the sages with food, the Veda with study, and the Creator with offspring. He should offer oblations to beings and cherish the whole world with affection, for a man attains the worlds earned by his own actions. Those who live on alms—wandering ascetics or students—are also established through the householder; thus, householdership is considered supreme. For the sake of reciting the Veda and bathing at sacred fords, Brahmins wander the earth, and also to see the world. Those who have no fixed abode, who do not eat regularly, and who dwell wherever evening finds them—the householder is their support and origin. To such guests, one should speak sweetly, welcoming them and offering gifts; to those who come to the house, one should provide a bed, a seat, and food. If a guest, whose hopes are disappointed, leaves a house, the householder gives him his sin and takes away his merit. For a householder, disrespect, pride, hypocrisy, distress, harm, and harshness are not to be approved. But the householder who properly follows this supreme rule becomes free from all bonds and attains the highest worlds. When old age comes and the householder has fulfilled his duties, he should entrust his wife to his sons and go to the forest, either alone or with her. There, living on leaves, roots, and fruits, wearing matted hair and beard, and lying on the ground, he should become a sage, receiving all guests. His garments should be made from skin, bark, or grass, and bathing three times a day is proper. Worship of the deities, offering oblations, honoring all who come, and giving alms and offerings are proper for him. Anointing the body with forest oils is recommended, as is asceticism and endurance of heat, cold, and the like. Thus are the duties and virtues of the classes and the orders of life, O King, faithfully laid out for the welfare of all.