In the ancient days, the householder’s life was revered as a sacred path, with each householder observing duties according to his understanding and station. Some undertook six daily duties, others three, and yet others two; but the highest among them, the twice-born, remained ever established in the contemplation of Brahman. No holy place was deemed greater than the vow of the householder. He was enjoined never to cook food for himself alone, nor to take the life of a creature without necessity. All beings, living or not, were considered worthy of sacrifice and ritual. He was to avoid sleeping during the day or at improper hours of the night. Eating at inappropriate times and speaking falsehood were forbidden, and it was never right for a Brahmin guest to go unfed or unhonored in his house. Guests were to be received with respect, and offerings made to ancestors and gods, especially by those learned in the Vedas, devoted to vows, and well-versed in sacred knowledge. Those who lived according to their prescribed duties, steadfast in ritual and ascetic practice, were to make offerings to gods and ancestors as acts of reverence. But for one who had abandoned his duty, neglected the sacred fire, or acted against the teacher’s instructions—for one who clung to falsehood—there could be no right to ritual action. For such a one, only the sharing of food among all beings remained as a true sacrament. Thus, a householder was to share with those engaged in cooking, and one who always ate what was left after feeding others was called a vighasāśī, partaker of ambrosial food. The remnants of sacrifice were considered nectar, equal to the food offered in ritual; he who ate the leftovers after sharing was honored as a vighasāśī. He was to be devoted to his own wife, self-controlled, skillful in action, with his senses conquered. Surrounded by officiants, priests, teachers, maternal uncles, and guests, as well as elders, children, the sick, physicians, relatives, kin, and friends, he was to honor his mother, father, brother-in-law, brother, son, wife, daughter, and servants. With these, he was never to engage in disputes. By avoiding arguments with them, he was freed from all sin. By conquering himself in these relationships, he conquered all worlds. The teacher was lord of the Brahma world, the father lord of the Prajapati world, the guest lord of all worlds, the officiant lord of the Vedic world. The brother-in-law was lord among the Apsaras, relatives lords of the Vaiśvadeva world, kin and friends lords of the directions on earth, and mother, maternal uncle, elders, children, and the sick held power in the sky. The priest was lord among sages, those who sought refuge were guardians of the Sādhyas’ world, the physician lord of the horse world, and the brother guardian of the Vasus’ world. The wife was queen in the moon’s world, the daughter among the Apsaras of the home, the eldest brother equal to the father, and wife and son were regarded as one’s very own body. Scribes, servants, and daughters especially were to be shown compassion. Even if reproached by them, the wise householder endured without distress. A wise man, devoted to his household duties and steadfast in righteousness, having conquered fatigue, did not take on many tasks; the righteous began only a few, mindful of their strength. There were three modes of household life, each leading to the highest good, and the fourfold division of life was held supreme. All the restraints previously taught were to be observed by those seeking fulfillment, including those who lived by carrying pots, gleaning grains, or like pigeons, living simply. Where these means of livelihood were found, that region prospered, and ancestors of ten generations before and after were purified. Whoever, free from affliction, practiced even this household mode of life attained the same realm as those who bore the discus. For those who had mastered their senses, this path was prescribed, and the world of heaven became the established abode of householders with disciplined minds. When this order, established by Brahma, was left behind, one entered the second stage, honored in the heavenly world. And so, the third stage—the forest-dweller’s life—was prescribed. When a householder perceived wrinkles and gray hair upon himself, and when his children had children, then it was time to retire to the forest. For those weary of their household vows, the forest-dweller’s stage was ordained. Listen, O Bhishma, to the tale of those who are the refuge of all worlds: those who, after initiation, dwell in holy places, having withdrawn from worldly life. Endowed with wisdom and strength, truth, purity, and patience, they spent the third portion of their lives as forest-dwellers. They tended the same sacred fires as before, devoted to sacrifice, disciplined, moderate in food, and absorbed in devotion to Vishnu. At that time, only offerings for the sacred fire and all the components of sacrifice were performed, using unplowed rice, barley, wild grains, and food gleaned from the forest. In summer, they offered sacrificial food, and likewise in the five months of winter; in the forest-dweller stage, four modes of living were remembered. Some ate immediately what they obtained, some stored food for a month, some for a year, and others for twelve years, all for the worship of guests and the purpose of sacrifice. In the rainy season, they dwelt in open spaces; in winter, they relied on water. In summer, they practiced the austerity of five fires; in autumn, they ate nectar-like food; they moved about the earth, even standing on their toes. They remained in standing or sitting postures, even when resting. Some used pestles and mortars, others crushed with stones. Some drank boiled barley gruel during the bright fortnight, others in the dark fortnight, and some ate according to prescribed rules. Some sustained themselves with roots, others with fruits, and others with water alone, steadfast in their vows. Thus lived the Vaikhānasa ascetics, firm in their discipline, following the prescribed order. These and various other initiations belonged to those resolute ones; and the fourth, the Upanishadic Dharma, was considered common to all. Thus, the lives of householders and forest-dwellers were woven with duty, sacrifice, and self-mastery, leading them ever toward the highest good.