In the ancient days, the wise twice-born, when faced with the necessity of cutting a rope—an act considered impure—were instructed to undertake the Kṛcchra penance to atone for this deed. If the act was done knowingly, only half that penance was required; but if it occurred unknowingly, then two Indra penances were prescribed as expiation. Among the Brahmins, certain actions were counted as especially grave. If a Brahmin approached a woman forbidden to him, partook of liquor, or ate meat, these were recognized as serious transgressions. There were four types of individuals, in particular, whose association brought about great sin: the washerman, the leather-worker, the dancer, and the drum-maker. Should one eat with such persons, go to their women, drink with them, or accept gifts from them, the taint was severe. For those who secretly committed such deeds, it was ordained that they must practice penance for a full month. The scriptures further listed women who must never be approached: mother, teacher’s wife, daughter, sister, and daughter-in-law, as well as a queen, a woman who has renounced the world, a nurse, or a woman of the highest class—be they of the father’s or mother’s lineage. In cases where a twice-born man had erred with such women, atonement could be sought, sometimes by approaching a prostitute, as a means to remove the sin. If a Brahmin, in particular, had gone to his teacher’s wife, he was to perform the prescribed expiation without delay. The scriptures also spoke of the treatment of cows, creatures held sacred. If someone struck a cow above the staff and caused it to fall, or if the wound was as large as a thumb or a forearm, and if, by causing a cow to fall, a fetus was produced, these were considered serious offenses. Acts such as binding, confining, injuring, or causing pain to cows; if a cow fainted, fell, or was struck with a staff; or if it ate or drank in such a state—all these required atonement. Should a cow be killed with wood, clods, stones, or weapons, specific penances were prescribed: Sāntapana for striking with wood, Prājāpatya for using clods. To make amends, one was to give medicine, oil, or food to both cows and Brahmins. When oil was consumed as medicine, or other medicinal substances were eaten, or when calves were tied at the neck or medical procedures performed, there were further rules. For example, hair was to be removed from the foot, and only the beard from the two legs. When all the hair was removed from the body, two fingers’ breadth had to be cut off. However, women were not to be shaved, nor was the heroic posture prescribed for them. Whether the transgressor was a king, a prince, or a learned Brahmin, for purifying the hair, a double penance was commanded. When this double penance was completed, the offering for the penance too was to be doubled. Those who prescribed penances not sanctioned by the sacred Śruti or Smṛti were to be avoided, and the king was cautioned never to harass such persons out of desire or delusion. After the penance was properly performed, it was essential to arrange a meal for Brahmins. If one was touched by worms born from grass, or by the fall of flies and similar creatures, penance was to be performed and the best of the twice-born fed. If, during the night, one was touched by a Caṇḍāla or an outcaste, bathing was prescribed. If a person unknowingly spent the night in such a place, then, when the stars rose and the planets appeared in the sky, further purification was required. In paths within water, in ant-hills, or in mouse-holes, a Brahmin was to diligently perform acts of sacrifice and charity. For offerings, the giving of wealth was considered holy, and the making of a pond was praised as an act of charity. Thus, the ancient lawgivers laid out these rules, guiding the twice-born and all seekers of purity along the path of righteousness.