In ancient times, the great sages, wise in the ways of dharma, did not praise sacrifices that involved violence or the shedding of life. Instead, ascetics spoke highly of offerings made from gleaned grains, roots, fruits, vegetables, and pure water placed reverently in a vessel. When people gave such gifts according to their ability, they found their place in the heavenly worlds, upholding the virtues of non-injury, absence of greed, self-restraint, compassion for all beings, and tranquility. The roots of eternal dharma, though very difficult to practice, were understood to be celibacy, austerity, purity, compassion, forgiveness, and steadfastness. Sacrifice, consisting of both material offerings and sacred mantras, was one path; but austerity, being of the nature of equality, was another. Through sacrifice, one could attain the realm of the gods, yet through austerity, one reached the domain of Virāj. Beyond these, there were five paths leading to liberation: renunciation of action, detachment, dissolution into one’s own nature, and knowledge. Each of these was held as a way to ultimate freedom. Long ago, in the age of Svāyambhuva, a great dispute arose between the sages and the gods regarding the proper performance of sacrifice. The sages, seeing that righteousness had been forcibly taken away and disregarding the words of Vasu, departed as they had come, leaving the assembly. With the sages gone, the gods gained control over the sacrifice, and it is said that kings—Brahmins and Kshatriyas accomplished in austerity—performed these rites. Among such kings were Priyavrata, Uttānapāda, Dhruva, Medhātithi, Vasu, Sudhāmā, Virajā, Śaṅkhapād, and many others like Prācīnabarhi, Parjanya, and Havirdhāna. Through their austerities, these royal sages attained the heavenly realms, their souls great and their fame enduring. Thus, it was understood that austerity surpasses sacrifice in every respect. Indeed, this entire universe was first created by Brahmā through austerity. Therefore, it is not by sacrifice that the highest is attained, for austerity is said to be the root of all. From that time in the age of Svāyambhuva, the initiation of sacrifice began, and since then, sacrifice has continued through each succeeding age. Now, let us turn to the order of the Dvāpara age. When the Tretā age wanes, Dvāpara begins. At its start, people enjoy the same measure of success that existed in Tretā, but as the age passes, that success fades. With the onset of Dvāpara, new qualities arise among people: greed, persistence, trade, war, and uncertainty about what is truly right. The destruction of castes, reversal of duties, constant journeys, killing, harsh punishments, pride, arrogance, impatience, and force become prevalent. Thus, in Dvāpara, passion and darkness grow once more. Where there was no unrighteousness in the first Kṛta age, it began in Tretā, and in Dvāpara, confusion increases, only to be utterly destroyed in Kali. The duties of castes and stages of life become mixed and unclear. A duality emerges in the sacred texts, with the Veda and tradition becoming divided, and certainty is lost. Because of this uncertainty and confusion, the true nature of righteousness is no longer known. When the essence of righteousness is misunderstood, differences of opinion arise, and people become divided by their conflicting viewpoints. Thus, the world becomes greatly disturbed. Although there is one Veda with four parts, it is repeatedly condensed and dispersed in each Dvāpara age, according to the lifespan of people. The one Veda is divided into four during Dvāpara and other ages, and the sons of the seers further split the Vedas due to their different understandings. The Brāhmaṇas, Kalpasūtras, commentaries, and branches of knowledge arise from these general and particular differences, and from divergent views in various places. Some people follow one path, while others oppose it, and in the Dvāpara ages, these differing doctrines, each with its own interpretation, become established. Originally, there was only one Ādhvaryava, or Yajurveda tradition, but later it became twofold. Through conflicting and contrary meanings, a multitude of treatises arose. The Ādhvaryava tradition became further confused by many schools, and the Atharva and Sāma traditions were likewise divided by variations and their own declines. In the Dvāpara ages, meaning became confused by differing doctrines, and when Dvāpara ends, those Vedas truly perish in Kali. From this confusion arise, in Dvāpara again, loss of vision, death, diseases, and afflictions. The sufferings of speech, mind, and action lead to disillusionment, and from disillusionment, the inquiry into liberation from suffering is born. Through inquiry arises detachment; from detachment, the perception of faults; and from perceiving faults, the arising of knowledge. Among the intelligent ones, during the earlier Svāyambhuva interval on earth, there appeared in Dvāpara obstacles to the treatises. There are also variations of Āyurveda, its auxiliaries, Jyotiṣa, Arthaśāstra, and the analysis of reasoning (Hetuśāstra). There are methods of Kalpasūtras, variations of commentarial sciences, divisions of Smṛti treatises, and separate schools. In the Dvāpara ages, differences of opinion also arise among people, and through mind, action, and speech, livelihood is attained only with difficulty. Thus, in Dvāpara, the time for all beings is full of hardship: greed, instability, trade, war, and uncertainty about truths prevail. There is the composition of Vedic treatises, confusion of duties, destruction of social classes and stages, and the rise of desire and hatred. When two thousand years are complete, that is considered the highest lifespan for humans in Dvāpara; at the end of the age, its twilight begins from the fourth part.