In ancient times, when a great sacrifice was being performed, the gods of the senses—those who receive offerings and preside over the rites—were worshipped, and the elemental gods were present as well. At the moment when the Adhvaryu priests gave the sacred signal to begin, the wise sages rose and, seeing the suffering herds of animals brought for sacrifice, questioned Viśvabhuk: “What is the rule of your sacrifice?” The sages spoke with concern, “Here, unrighteousness is strong; violence is being done in your pursuit of righteousness. This new custom of animal sacrifice is fierce, O best of gods.” They continued, “You have begun a practice that destroys righteousness by involving animals. This is not true righteousness, but unrighteousness, for violence can never be called righteousness. If you wish to be honored, let righteousness be established according to scripture.” The sages explained that a sacrifice performed according to the prescribed rules, with righteousness and without fault, and with the proper seeds of sacrifice, upholds the three aims of life—dharma, artha, and kāma. They reminded Indra that this great sacrifice, established of old by Svayambhū, was pure. Yet, when Viśvabhuk Indra was thus addressed by the seers who knew the truth, he did not accept their words, his mind clouded by pride and delusion. A great dispute then arose between Indra and the sages, and even among all beings, both moving and unmoving, as to who should be the recipient of the sacrifice. Distressed by this conflict, the powerful sages, along with Indra, approached Vasum—he who moves through the sky—and questioned him, saying, “O wise one, you have witnessed the methods of sacrifice. O king descended from Uttānapāda, please resolve our doubt.” Hearing their words, Vasum, without regard for strength or weakness, recalled the Vedic scriptures and spoke of the essence of sacrifice: “Sacrifice should be performed with those who are properly brought, with pure animals, or with roots and fruits as well. The inherent nature of sacrifice is violence—so it is understood from tradition, and the mantras composed by the sages bear this mark. Those who observe the stars and other signs, endowed with long austerity, have declared this as the standard; therefore, you ought to accept it. If your own mantric statements are the authority, O twice-born, then let the sacrifice proceed accordingly; otherwise, the words would be untrue.” Receiving this reply, the sages and gods steeled themselves, and, foreseeing what must come, they cursed Vasum. Immediately, the king entered the netherworld; once a being who moved above, he became a dweller in the lower realms. By his own statement, Vasum, who once walked the earth, now became the resolver of doubts concerning dharma, but from below. From this, the lesson was clear: a doubt should not be declared by one alone, even if highly learned, for the subtle and difficult path of dharma has many streams. Therefore, dharma cannot be definitively stated by anyone except Manu, born from Svāyambhuva, who takes into account the gods and sages. Thus, violence should not occur in sacrifice, as was said by the sages of old. Thousands of great sages have attained heaven by their own austerities alone. Accordingly, the great sages do not praise sacrifices involving violence; ascetics extol offerings of gleaned grains, roots, fruits, vegetables, and water placed in a vessel. Those who give such offerings according to their means are established in the heavenly world, practicing non-injury, non-greed, self-restraint, compassion for beings, and tranquility. Celibacy, austerity, purity, compassion, forgiveness, and steadfastness—these are the difficult roots of eternal dharma. Sacrifice consists of material and mantra, and austerity is of the nature of equality. By sacrifices, one attains the gods; by austerity, the realm of Virāj. Through renunciation of action, detachment, dissolution into nature, and knowledge, one attains liberation—these five are said to be the paths. So it was that a great dispute arose among the sages and the gods regarding the proper performance of sacrifice in that former age of Svāyambhuva. When the sages saw that righteousness had been forcibly taken away and disregarded Vasu’s words, they departed as they had come. After they left, the gods obtained the sacrifice; it is said that kings such as Brahmins and Kshatriyas, accomplished in austerity, performed it. Among these kings were Priyavrata, Uttānapāda, Dhruva, Medhātithi, Vasu, Sudhāmā, Virajā, Śaṅkhapād, Prācīnabarhi, Parjanya, Havirdhāna, and many others, all of whom attained heaven through their austerities. These royal sages of great soul and established fame show that austerity surpasses sacrifice in every respect. Indeed, this entire universe was created by Brahmā through austerity; therefore, it is not sacrifice, but austerity that is the root of all. Thus, the initiation of sacrifice took place in the age of Svāyambhuva, and from that time onward, sacrifice has continued through the ages. Now, as time moved forward, the order of the Dvāpara age arose. When the Tretā age wanes, the Dvāpara begins. At the start of Dvāpara, the success among people is that which existed in Tretā; but as the age passes, that success is lost. When people again enter Dvāpara, greed, perseverance, trade, war, and uncertainty about principles arise. There is destruction of castes, reversal of duties, migrations, killing, harsh punishment, pride, arrogance, impatience, and the use of force. Thus, in Dvāpara, passion and darkness increase once again. In the first Kṛta age there was no unrighteousness, but it began in Tretā. In Dvāpara, confusion arises and is destroyed again in Kali; in Dvāpara, the duties of castes and stages of life become mixed. In that age, a duality arises in the revealed and remembered texts; the Veda and tradition become divided, and certainty is lost. So the story of sacrifice, righteousness, and the changing ages unfolds, teaching the subtlety of dharma through the actions of gods, sages, and kings.