In ancient times, when one sought purification from transgressions, the scriptures prescribed sacred rites and penances, each suited to the nature of the act and the person involved. If a sin had been committed, such as harming another or violating dharma, the wrongdoer might offer oblations directly into the marrow, accompanied by the proper mantras, each recited in the correct order. There were other paths, too: if one was killed for the sake of a Brahmin, whether it was a person or a sacred cow of the twice-born, their suffering was relieved, and they were freed from distress. Purification could also be gained by serving the goddess Sarasvatī, or through acts of charity—giving wealth to a worthy recipient. For those who destroyed a fetus, the prescribed fee, determined by their class, was to be given to an Ātreya, a lineage of Brahmins. When a Brahmin attended a Soma sacrifice, he was to observe a vow twice as severe as usual, wearing garments made of bark and matted hair, and subsisting only on clarified butter the color of fire. Brahmin women who committed grave acts—such as drinking semen, urine, excrement, or liquor—were subject to similar penances. A twice-born who stole gold, after presenting a pestle to the king, would undergo the same purification, or he might give gold equal to his own weight to attain absolution. In cases of mutilation, the severed phallus and testicles were to be cast away in the southwestern direction. Other penances included performing the Cāndrāyaṇa vow or reciting the Veda Saṃhitā for three months. Living in a cowshed and following the cows, one could be purified by gifting a cow. Alternatively, subsisting on milk for a month, or on parched grain, brought purification anew. For the gravest sin—killing a Brahmin—one had to observe a three-year vow. For killing a Śūdra, six months of penance was prescribed, or the gift of ten cows. For killing lesser creatures—cats, iguanas, mongooses, animals, or frogs—specific offerings were required: for an elephant, five black bulls; for a parrot, a two-year-old calf. If a tree, shrub, creeper, or hero tree was cut down, one hundred recitations of the Ṛk was the prescribed atonement. To purify oneself for certain sins, a donkey might be obtained as a sacrificial animal and offered in the southwestern direction. If a messenger sent by a teacher died, the teacher himself had to perform three kṛcchra penances. Approaching enemies could be done by offering grain or through affection and other peaceful means. When one was falsely accused of a great or minor sin, the scripture prescribed the highest degree of penance. If a man, without authorization, approached his brother’s wife, he was to perform the Cāndrāyaṇa penance. A celibate student, living in a cowshed for a month, would undertake the vow of subsisting solely on milk. Even officiating at a sacrifice for an outcaste required one to perform the Kṛcchra penance three times. Those who rode donkeys or camels were to practice the threefold regulation of breath. Should one insult his teacher, utter 'hum' at him, or defeat a Brahmin in debate, or threaten or strike a Brahmin with a staff, the Kṛcchra or Atikṛcchra penance must be performed. Where expiation was prescribed, proper atonement had to be undertaken. If a fault was associated with planetary influences, the messenger responsible should be abandoned. Yet, if the fault was not publicly known, a secret vow was to be performed. In pure water, after gifting a milk-yielding cow, one should recite mantras in the water and offer forty oblations of ghee. For those who had drunk liquor, stolen gold, or recited the Rudra in water, a hundred breath-regulations would remove all sins. A twice-born, after fasting, should taste semen, feces, and urine as part of the prescribed purification. Reciting the elevenfold Rudra brought about the destruction of sin for the twice-born, and sins would not touch him; he would be quickly purified by remembering these rites. Finally, the scriptures extolled the virtues that aided in purification: celibacy, compassion, forbearance, meditation, truthfulness, purity, bathing, silence, fasting, offering oblations, self-study, and control of the senses. These practices, alongside the prescribed rites, guided seekers toward purity and restoration of dharma.