In ancient times, the sages spoke of the eight limbs of legal matters, likening them to gold, fire, and water. These limbs arise from the roots of human desire, anger, and greed, and from these three, all disputes proceed. Thus, three origins are described, and each one gives rise to quarrels. Within this framework, two types of litigation are recognized: one that arises from suspicion, and another from factual assertion. Suspicion itself springs from six kinds of contact, while factual assertion is based on seeing what is due. Because these involve two kinds of knowledge, two gates to litigation are declared. In any dispute, the prior statement forms the claim, while the counterclaim follows after. Depending on whether the grounds are genuine or deceptive, two courses of action are set forth. Among the various causes of dispute, debt stands foremost: what is to be given, what is not to be given, by whom, where, how, and what; the acts of giving, receiving, and obligation are collectively known as debt-taking. When a person deposits his property in trust without suspicion, this is called a deposit, as named by those learned in legal procedure. When merchants and others join together for work, the issues arising from such joint action are recognized as legal matters. If someone gives property properly and then seeks to take it back, this is known as ‘given but not returned,’ and is considered a cause for dispute. When one agrees to serve but fails to fulfill that service, this is called ‘failure to serve after agreement,’ another cause for quarrel. The prescribed procedures for paying and receiving wages of servants are to be followed; failure to pay wages is a recognized cause for dispute. If someone finds lost or deposited property belonging to another, or takes it by force and sells it secretly, this is known as the unauthorized sale of another’s goods. When an item is sold for a price but payment is not given to the seller, it becomes a dispute regarding non-delivery after sale. If a buyer, after purchasing an item, is dissatisfied or finds it defective, a dispute concerning wrongful sale arises. Agreements among heretics, merchants, and others are called established rules; violation of such agreements is regarded as a matter for dispute. Where there are quarrels about boundaries, embankments, field limits, or distinctions between cultivated and uncultivated land, these are disputes concerning land. When the marriage rules for women and men are discussed, it is known as a dispute regarding the union of man and woman. When sons divide ancestral property for partition, this is called a dispute regarding inheritance. Any act done suddenly by those filled with force or arrogance is called a violent act and is a matter for dispute. Hostile speech, accompanied by insults about country, caste, or family, is recognized as verbal abuse. Assault on another’s body with hands, feet, weapons, or by means such as fire is called physical abuse. Gambling with dice, sticks, and the like is called gambling; contests involving five kinds of games with living beings are called animal gambling. A miscellaneous case is known as a transaction without a fixed category; the various types of human actions are said to have a hundred branches. Altogether, there are eighteen kinds of legal disputes, each with a hundred subdivisions, corresponding to the many forms of human action. The king is instructed to examine legal disputes with wise and calm Brahmins, assisted by impartial judges who are free from greed and learned in the Vedas. If the judges are unable to discern the matter due to circumstances, a Brahmin should be appointed by them. Those who act out of passion, greed, or fear, and who deviate from the law, should not be appointed. If judges, individually or collectively, are found guilty in a dispute, their penalty is double, especially if they act contrary to the path of law and custom, corrupted by others. Whatever matter is reported to the king is called a legal case; the statement of the defendant should be recorded as understood by the plaintiff. The reply should be written clearly, with the date, names, caste, and other marks, in the presence of the one who made the initial statement and after hearing the matter. The claimant should immediately write down the means for fulfilling the pledged matter; if accomplished, he attains success, otherwise, the result is the opposite. This fourfold procedure is prescribed in disputes; having completed the plaint, one should respond accordingly. One who is accused should not be led away by another after being released, unless there is misconduct; but a counterclaim should be made in cases of quarrel or violence. A competent surety should be taken from both parties for the resolution of the matter; if concealment is suspected, the surety should pay the equivalent amount to the king. For a false accusation, twice the amount claimed should be taken; in cases of violence, theft, abuse, curses, or offenses involving women, the penalty is as prescribed. If one says, “Let it be examined,” the time is immediate; otherwise, it is considered at one’s discretion, especially if he goes to another place or licks his lips. Signs of guilt may be observed: his forehead sweats, his face loses color, and by nature, he becomes disturbed in mind, speech, and bodily actions. In a claim or testimony, one whose speech is corrupt is declared so; whoever, being independent, resolves a doubtful matter or withdraws is recognized. If the summoned debtor does not say anything, he is considered punishable; when there are witnesses on both sides, the witnesses of the plaintiff speak first. If the first statement is not established, the defendants speak; if the dispute involves a group, the one who is deficient should be made to pay. Money, goods, and wealth given or owed—if denied, the king should recover them through an agent in legal proceedings. Even an existing or past matter may be lost through litigation, whether wholly denied, affirmed, or partially established. Thus, the sages have laid down the procedures and causes for disputes, guiding the king and his wise counselors in the pursuit of justice.