Arjuna listened intently as Krishna continued to reveal the profound truths of action and knowledge. Krishna explained that in every act, three things come together: knowledge, the object of knowledge, and the knower. Likewise, action itself has three aspects: the instrument, the deed, and the doer. But these—knowledge, action, and the agent—are not all the same; they each take on three distinct forms, shaped by the qualities of nature. “Hear now,” Krishna said, “how these differences unfold.” He began with knowledge. The highest knowledge, Krishna said, is that by which a person sees one undivided, imperishable reality present in all beings, though they appear separate. This is the knowledge of goodness, or sattva. But when one sees the world as filled with many separate beings, each distinct and divided, that is knowledge born of passion, or rajas. And knowledge that clings to a single part as if it were the whole, that is irrational, trivial, and untrue—this is the knowledge of darkness, or tamas. Next, Krishna described the kinds of action. Action that is prescribed, performed without attachment, without longing for results, and without personal desire or aversion—such action is sattvic, pure and good. Action done with a craving for results, with pride, and with great effort, is rajasic, born of passion. And action undertaken in delusion, without concern for consequences, loss, harm, or one’s own capacity, is tamasic, steeped in darkness. The agent, too, is of three kinds. The sattvic agent acts without attachment, without ego, with steadfastness and enthusiasm, remaining unchanged in success or failure. The rajasic agent is driven by desire for results, greedy, violent, impure, and swayed by joy and sorrow. The tamasic agent is unfit, crude, arrogant, deceitful, malicious, lazy, despondent, and procrastinating. Krishna then turned to the intellect and resolve. “Hear now, O Arjuna, of the threefold distinction of these as well,” he said. The sattvic intellect knows what is action and what is inaction, what should and should not be done, what is fear and what is fearlessness, what is bondage and what is liberation. The rajasic intellect is confused, misunderstanding righteousness and unrighteousness, what ought to be done and what ought not. The tamasic intellect, veiled in darkness, sees unrighteousness as righteousness, perceiving all things in a distorted way. As for resolve, the sattvic kind is that by which a person sustains the mind, life, and senses with unwavering discipline. Rajasic resolve clings to righteousness, desire, and wealth, seeking their results with attachment. Tamasic resolve is that by which a person of poor understanding cannot let go of sleep, fear, sorrow, despondency, and arrogance. Krishna spoke next of happiness. “Now, hear from me of the threefold happiness, O Arjuna.” Sattvic happiness is that which comes from self-understanding and practice, seeming at first like poison but, in its result, like nectar. Rajasic happiness is born from contact between the senses and their objects; it seems sweet at first, like nectar, but in the end is like poison. Tamasic happiness deludes from the start, arising from sleep, laziness, and negligence; it is darkness from beginning to end. Krishna declared, “There is no being on earth or even among the gods who is free from these three qualities of nature.” He then described the natural duties of people, determined by the qualities with which they are born. The duties of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras each arise from their own nature. For Brahmins, the natural duties are tranquility, self-control, austerity, purity, patience, uprightness, knowledge, wisdom, and faith. For Kshatriyas, they are valor, strength, firmness, skill, not fleeing in battle, generosity, and lordliness. For Vaishyas, the natural duties are farming, protection of cows, and trade; for Shudras, service is the natural work. “One who is devoted to their own duty attains perfection,” Krishna said. “Hear how this comes about. By worshipping, through one’s own work, that source from which all beings arise and by which all is pervaded, a person attains perfection. It is better to do one’s own duty, even imperfectly, than to perform another’s duty well. By acting according to one’s own nature, one incurs no sin. Do not abandon your work, even if it is flawed, for all undertakings are tainted by some imperfection, just as fire is always covered by smoke.” Krishna then described the path to the highest state. “One whose intellect is unattached, who has mastered the self and is free from desire, attains the supreme perfection of actionlessness through renunciation. Let me tell you, Arjuna, how such a perfected soul reaches Brahman, the culmination of all knowledge.” He explained, “Endowed with a purified intellect, controlling the self with firmness, abandoning sense objects, and casting aside attachment and aversion, living in solitude, eating lightly, controlling speech, body, and mind, always devoted to meditation, and embracing detachment—such a one, having given up ego, strength, arrogance, desire, anger, and possessiveness, becomes peaceful and fit for union with Brahman.” “Having become Brahman, with a cheerful heart, such a one neither grieves nor desires, and regards all beings equally. In this state, one attains supreme devotion to me. Through devotion, one truly knows me—who I am and what I am—and, knowing me thus, enters into me at once. Even while performing all actions, if one takes refuge in me, by my grace one attains the eternal, imperishable state.” Krishna concluded, “With your mind surrendered to me, making me your supreme goal, relying on the yoga of intellect, dedicate all your actions to me and be absorbed in me always.